Words are powerful tools. Violent extremists know this well and often choose their expressions carefully to gain the loyalty of their followers. When used precisely, they can cause enormous damage.
By deliberately choosing their words, researchers can look for patterns, trends, and warning signs. What exactly do extremists say that creates followers, incites hatred and violence, and can ultimately lead to deadly attacks?
Our research, which analyzes the extremist rhetoric behind some of the worst terrorist attacks in recent history, sheds light on this question. We have identified six key tactics that terrorists use to mobilize people around their cause.
By identifying tactics, we can dismantle language and protect people and communities from radicalization.
Divide and conquer
In previous work, we examined the language of far-right incitement in the Christchurch shooter’s 87-page manifesto.
Our latest work analyzed jihadist texts. These included speeches by former Al Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden after 9/11 and statements by former Islamic State leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in the organization’s magazine.
We used linguistic analysis to focus on how language was used strategically to reduce and accentuate cultural differences. We examine how inciters use words to create bonds and obligations that drive violence.
We found two main types of incitement messages: those that strengthen connections within the group to build a shared purpose, and those that separate the group from outsiders and present others as enemies.
These types of messages can divide society and cause people to identify strongly with the group. As a result, following group rules, even extreme actions, can be perceived as proof of belonging and loyalty.
But in violent extremism, orders alone are often not enough to inspire violence or mobilize support. So how do extremists use these underlying strategies to incite people to act?
We recommend: They develop a tool to block politically extremist content in X
6 rhetorical tactics of extremists
Once violence was established as a moral duty through group isolation, there are six key techniques that extremists employ.
1. Use difference as a weapon
Extremists not only label outsiders as different, but present them as immoral and dangerous. The “us” versus “them” becomes the backdrop for subsequent calls to action.
Inciters link loyalty and honor with threats from outsiders. Osama bin Laden urged violence against pro-American Arab governments, calling them “traitor and collaborator governments (…) created to annihilate jihad.”
Christchurch shooter Brenton Tarrant attacked non-governmental organizations supporting migrants, calling them “traitors”. He called them “anti-white scum” and compared them to a “vipers nest” that must be destroyed.
Dehumanizing outsiders strengthens group bonds and can have deadly consequences.
2. Evoking heroes and icons
Extremists use famous people, places, or events to make their audience feel part of a larger story. Names like “Saladin” or places like “Hagia Sophia” and “Londinium” link their followers to icons or past struggles, making them feel like defenders or avengers.
Tarrant said:
“This Pakistani Muslim invader now represents the inhabitants of London. Londinium, the very heart of the British Isles. What better sign of the white renaissance than the removal of this invader?”
3. Reusing religious texts
Extremists do not use religion itself, but rather distorted and decontextualized versions of religious texts to justify violence.
Citing God or religious figures legitimizes the message and frames violence as a moral or spiritual duty. This strengthens followers’ loyalty and belief that violent acts serve “our” shared values.
Tarrant cited Pope Urban II of the First Crusade, while Al-Baghdadi misquoted Allah.
4. Tailored complaints and inflammatory language
Inciters tailor their grievances before the public voices them. Words like “humiliation,” “injustice,” or “cultural loss” help unite followers in a common cause.
Osama bin Laden spoke of Muslims living in “oppression” and “contempt.” While the Christchurch shooter warned of “pedophile politicians” and that immigration would “destroy our communities.”
Naming and labeling unites followers and divides outsiders.
Don’t miss: Fitness and combat clubs recruit members to spread white supremacy; This is how they distribute neo-Nazi ideology
5. Kinship metaphors and messages
Osama bin Laden greeted his audience using metaphors as “soldiers of Allah,” while describing enemies “under the banner of the cross.” These contrasts intensify loyalty and hostility at the same time.
On the other hand, kinship terms attract people. Words like “brothers,” “sisters,” “we,” and “our” make strangers feel like family. Calling followers “our Muslim brothers” turns political duty into a personal moral duty, such as protecting family.
Tarrant did too. His phrase “Why should you have peace when your other brothers in Europe are facing certain war?” links violence to family security and future generations.
Instead, “they” and “them” mark outsiders as non-kin. That sharp grammatical “us versus them” eliminates empathy and makes it easier to justify exclusion or harm.
6. Coercion for violent actions
In addition to orders, recommendations or warnings that explicitly instruct someone to do something, there is also coercion. It makes violence be perceived as caring for the group.
Extremists achieve this by framing violence as a duty. Phrases like “it is permissible” in jihadist texts turn violence from taboo into obligation, as in “it is permissible to take away their property and shed their blood.”
They also frame the outgroup as an existential threat. This justifies preventive violence as self-defense or necessity, as in the case of Tarrant: “mass immigration will deprive us of our rights, subvert our nations, destroy our communities, destroy our ethnic ties (…).”
What can be done with this research?
Extremist rhetoric doesn’t just exist online. It resonates in protests, forums and political debates.
The “Great Replacement” theory, once confined to extremist manifestos, is now resurfacing in widespread anti-immigration protests.
ASIO has warned that the “promotion of community violence” is increasing, and politically motivated violence “points the finger” at authorities.
*Awni Etaywe is a Professor of Linguistics and Forensic Linguist who analyzes cyberterrorism, threatening communications and incitement. She is also a media researcher on how language influences peace, compassion and empathy at Charles Darwin University.
This text was originally published in The Conversation
Do you like photos and news? Follow us on our Instagram
